Human Factors 2024

An online, real-time, collaborative, immersive approach to early-phase, operation-centric design of maritime applications

Kjetil Nordby, AHO

Early-phase, operation-centric design enables iterative and incremental concept development in a realistic context. This is important for the design of maritime applications because of the complexity of the context to design for, such as ship bridges, and the difficulty for designers to experience maritime operations first-hand. Currently, common approaches used to recreate the conditions for early-phase, operation-centric design include the use of maritime training simulators, and the use of field studies on ships. We propose a novel approach which leverages mixed-reality technology to build upon previous work on virtual reality-reconstructed operational scenarios. We give an example of use of the approach in which we reconstruct a docking scenario onboard a Ro-Ro ship. The scenario combines the perspectives of multiple users (captain, navigating officer, pilot) engaging in coordinated docking operations across connected workstations (main bridge console, wing bridge console) throughout a detailed scenario (sailing, final approach, docking). An online, collaborative 2D user interface (UI) design tool is used to sketch new concepts of UIs aiding the docking operations. The 2D UIs are rendered in a reconstructed 3D space in which experts are immersed to evaluate the UI concepts. Thanks to the online and real-time features of the 2D and 3D design collaborative tools (Figma, Bezel, Unreal), the designer and evaluating experts can quickly iterate on the concept in a variety of situations. We argue that our approach is well suited for the needs of human-centred, early-phase, operation-centric design processes thanks to its low-cost, low participation threshold, fidelity and pace of iteration.

A Field Study of Augmented Reality for Team Decision-Making during Ship Navigation

Floris Van den Oever, University of Bergen, Norway

Background: It is crucial to have high-quality collaboration between team members in safety-critical operations. In the safety-critical operation of ship navigation, key components of that collaboration are shared situation awareness, team decision-making, and communication. Augmented Reality (AR) has the potential to improve collaboration during ship navigation. Thus, it is necessary to study this. Besides that, the usability and potential advantages and disadvantages of AR for ship navigation must be understood before it is
implemented.
Method: An AR prototype for collaborative ship navigation will be tested on several voyages in Norwegian fjords in different weather and traffic circumstances. This will be done on one or more vessels. Different AR features of the prototype will be studied. Usage of AR for ship navigation by the ship crews will be observed and the crews will be interviewed. Team decision-making and shared situation awareness will be examined with thematic analysis based on theory. Situation awareness will also be measured by a SART. Usability will be measured with the System Usability Scale and in the interview. Perceived advantages and disadvantages, as well as suggestions for the development of AR for ship navigation, will be measured in the interview.
Results: Results will give insight into how AR can improve communication, shared situation awareness, and team decision-making during ship navigation. The usefulness of different AR features will be described. Advantages, disadvantages, and suggestions for development will be listed.
Discussion: Findings may inform the development and research of AR applications for collaboration in safety-critical operations like ship navigation.
Key Terms: Augmented Reality; Shared situation awareness; Team decision-making; Communication; Ship navigation; Safety-critical operations

“Any fool could tell how bad the ship was”: The importance of employee voice in safety culture

Dr Ian Bron, Toronto Metropolitan University Centre for Free Expression
Co-Authors: Ronald Pelot, and John W. Dalziel, Dalhousie University

“Any fool could tell how bad the ship was.” Fourteen years after the sinking of the MV Princess Ashika, the words of Sione Mafi Kavaliku, a Marine Officer in Tonga’s Ministry of Transport, have not lost their power.

How could this have happened? Did no one know? Why did no one do anything?

After a disaster, many questions are raised by the public about how the incident could possibly have happened. Weren’t there procedures, standards, rules, and laws in place to prevent this? Weren’t there safety inspectors who were obligated to protect the public safety?

Standards, procedures, rules and laws exist to maintain public safety in our increasingly complex world. But, as many maritime disasters and other incidents such as the deadly Grenfell Tower fire, painfully demonstrate, these standards count for little unless there is a Safety Culture to ensure accountability, and that standards, procedures, rules and laws are applied and enforced.

The authors, drawing on research and their extensive maritime and regulatory experience, explore these issues. They explore the pressures on the members of the safety network to “look the other way” and allow non-compliant and unsafe practices to continue. The pressures on those who try to maintain standards and protect the public safety are explored; the failure of their co-workers and society in general to support them is exposed.

Solutions to these safety culture issues will be proposed.

“Every lie we tell incurs a debt to the truth. Sooner or later that debt is paid.” (‘Chernobyl’ miniseries, 2019)

How can we support uncrewed Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship operators in their decision-making?

Kirsty Lynch, University of Southampton

Uncrewed Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are operated from Remote Control Centres (RCCs) either onboard another ship or located shoreside, which may make decision-making for MASS operators more difficult due to their relocation from onboard the ship, therefore they will lack proximity to the ship they are operating and may have reduced situational awareness. The Schema World Action Research Method (SWARM) will be used to explore the decision-making process of MASS operators and the challenges associated with operating uncrewed platforms within and beyond the line of sight. Seven MASS operators were interviewed using SWARM about their decision-making process during an environmental survey operation. The interview responses will be coded using the Schema Action World (SAW) Taxonomy and mapped onto the Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM) framework and used to understand the key decisions operators need to make during a survey operation and how the information they gather, and their schema inform those key decisions. The MASS operators’ decision-making processes will be analysed to explore what design requirements could be suggested for future MASS systems and training to better support an operator’s decision-making process by ensuring that they have the necessary information and schema to make informed decisions.

Realizing larger click surfaces for maritime user interfaces using function grouping.

Kjetil Nordby, AHO

Maritime regulation establishes a minimum button size of 15 mm for most maritime digital interfaces with touch screens. However, there’s a contention that this minimum size might be to small for efficient operation in challenging maritime environments. Notwithstanding these concerns, many interfaces continue to adopt the 15mm size.

In this study, we introduce a novel design concept that notably amplifies click surface areas. This enhancement is achieved by clustering multiple functions within more extensive zones and by refining sub-menus to improve readability, thereby offering expansive click surfaces for all integrated functions within a singular view. This reimagined structure diverges from conventional maritime interface designs, optimizing user accuracy in targeting specific surface areas. Additionally, our method streamlines keystroke interactions, enabling users to traverse the interface with fewer clicks and presenting more generous click surfaces suitable for mouse or trackball use.

We provide a comprehensive description of our proposed concept and evaluate it using Fitts’ law. Furthermore, we critically examine the potential shortcomings and advantages of our design proposal. In summary, we argue that our design concept likely paves the way for reduced errors and streamlined interactions, particularly beneficial for users experiencing situational impairments at sea.

Agent transparency and human performance in the context of autonomous collision avoidance

Koen van de Merwe, DNV

Transparency is a design principle intended to make the inner workings of agents visible to end-users. It is relevant in situations where humans need to evaluate the reasoning behind agent decisions and actions, e.g., when supervising autonomous ships or when using decision support systems. That is, by providing users with observability and predictability of the system through transparency, it is anticipated that the availability of this information, directly perceivable on an interface, expedites the information processing for the user and improves situation awareness (SA). However, there is limited research regarding the applicability of transparency in the maritime domain. To address this, a project was initiated to investigate the effects of transparency on key human performance variables in the context of autonomous collision avoidance. Its main results indicate that providing insight into the agents’ reasoning behind its actions becomes a key consideration in supporting future supervisors in verifying agent performance. It was also found that Human Machine Interfaces employing levels of transparency, depicting the agent’s perception, analysis, and decisions, can provide a plausible basis for aiding supervisors in understanding the agent’s planned actions. Finally, experimental evidence indicates that improvements in SA can be expected when applying these transparency principles, without increasing mental workload. However, future work should investigate transparency’s applicability to time critical applications due to heightened information processing requirements with increased transparency. Still, our overall findings indicate that agent transparency has merit as a design principle in supporting safe and effective human-autonomy system oversight.

Interorganizational simulator training for aeronautical and maritime SAR personnel

Oda Schliebusch-Jacob and Thomas Lübcke, German Maritime Search and Rescue Service

In order to effectively handle major maritime emergencies, seamless collaboration between aeronautical and maritime units is essential at all times. This necessitates regular, realistic training which, in reality, can be costly and logistically challenging. Modern simulation environments offer a solution, enabling SAR operations training that is not constrained by local conditions or external circumstances, and adheres to international standards and procedures.
However, simulation-based training for aeronautical and maritime SAR personnel was previously only possible in isolated simulation environments. The AMARIS (Aeronautical and Maritime Innovation Environment for Interorganizational Simulation) project addresses this shortcoming. AMARIS has introduced a new level of complexity, by allowing multiple ships and helicopters to interact simultaneously in a shared simulation world. This is achieved technically by coupling the Air Vehicle Simulator (AVES) of the German Aerospace Center with the SAR simulator of the German Maritime Search and Rescue Service.
The AMARIS project is pioneering in its approach, being the first to link simulation environments across organizational boundaries and different domains. This is complemented by a research-based, custom-made training concept aimed at fostering mutual understanding of operational specifics and communication patterns between ship and helicopter units. The goal is to ensure that smooth cooperation, prevent misunderstandings, and equip personnel to handle critical situations appropriately.
To further enhance the safety and efficiency of cross-domain search and rescue operations, we collect empirical data to explore and explain collaboration dynamics and inform continuous training improvements. Initial research findings and practical implications for similar simulator collaborations will be presented.

Strengthening Cyber Resilience and Navigational Safety in Turkish Straits: Development and Testing of Prevention Strategies in Simulated Environments

Yasin Burak Kurt, University of Strathclyde

The integration of technology into maritime operations has resulted in enhanced efficiency; yet, it has also presented new risks, particularly in the realm of cyber security. While sophisticated technological countermeasures have been the primary focus in addressing these vulnerabilities, the role of human factors in cyber resilience has received insufficient attention. This research seeks to bridge this gap by examining the influence of human-related elements on the maritime industry’s cyber security posture. Utilizing a blend of methodologies, including surveys involving maritime professionals and an analysis of past incident, the study aims to provide a holistic view of the intricate relationship among maritime operations, human factors, and cyber security. By fostering a comprehensive understanding of cyber security in maritime operations, the study proposes an integrated approach that guides maritime professionals in cyber awareness.

The Perils of the Human Operator in Maritime Autonomous Systems

Alistair Frizell, BMT

This technical paper explores some of the Human Factors (HF) challenges surrounding the transition to the deployment of highly autonomous vessels, with an emphasis on the Defence domain. The paper explores the significance of the human operator as a safety influencing factor, and the importance of allocation of function. The issues raised will be of relevance to all maritime vessels that incorporate a high degree of autonomy, but still depend on some degree of onboard crewing or offboard control. This paper considers how we might define the levels of autonomy within a complex system, using a warship as an example, and identifies human-autonomy relationships to be avoided. It further considers the cultural changes required to ensure that the challenges of autonomy can be overcome.

Maritime Innovations and Regulations–Synergy for Sustainability and Safety

Bhavana Singh Bondili, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences (HVL)

The maritime industry is often described as old-fashioned and slow to adopt change. Given global challenges there is a need to increase the sustainability, safety, and competitiveness of shipping through innovation while making sure that the users of innovative technologies can be effective and safe. To ensure the safety and effectiveness of these innovations, regulatory authorities are encouraged to maintain flexibility and adaptability in response to the dynamic nature of evolving innovations. In the maritime context, prosperity hinges on the synergy between possibilities of innovation and permeabilities of regulation. Furthermore, regulations are perceived by innovators as unnecessarily limiting, while regulators struggle with interpreting regulations that are not keeping up with technology. For this reason, we explore the relationship between innovations & regulation, by focusing on gaps, overlaps, tensions as well as different drivers and impacting factors. To study the relationship between these processes, stakeholder maps are constructed and work as the basis for selecting interviews with representatives of central stakeholders. A case study follows the route of maritime innovation and the contacts with regulation. A systemic approach is carried out to understand both innovators and regulators perceptions, limitations, and responsiveness. It requires viewing regulators and innovators as complementary forces, they are work in progress rather than counterparts.

Keywords
Innovations; Regulations; Gaps; Perceptions; Responsiveness; Limitations; Stakeholders; Safety; Sustainability

“Fit to Fight”: delivering people and equipment from ship to shore in future amphibious operations

Dennis Watson, BAE Systems

Western militaries are reassessing operating concepts for amphibious operations, with a common theme being towards a larger number of smaller and more dispersed force elements, launched further out from land, and with greater speed.

Amphibious forces will continue to employ small and medium landing craft to carry personnel and equipment to littoral access points – including (but not limited to) beaches. By operating further out to sea – in excess of 100nm – these craft will be exposed to higher sea states for considerably longer periods.

Such operating concepts raise the human factors issues associated with delivering people and equipment “fit to fight” on arrival. In addition to acute and chronic physiological injuries due to Whole Body Vibration (WBV), there is also a risk to Embarked Military Forces (EMF) of neurological
and psychological injuries, including nausea, annoyance, fatigue, anxiety, loss of visual accuracy and hand-eye co-ordination. Given the potential implications in combat, such human factors issues are likely to be more of a driving constraint than outright craft performance.

This paper provides an overview of the operating conditions that future amphibious forces are likely to encounter – including wave height and wave period, providing an insight on the likely implications for traditional landing craft designs. These figures are compared to existing literature on the causation of physiological, neurological and psychological injury.

Finally, a concept for a novel landing craft is proposed – drawing on emerging technology from other sectors – which puts human factors at the centre of the design process alongside performance.

Human Centered Design

Heike Diepeveen, MARIN

The size of deep sea container ships has increased dramatically over the past decades. The loss of containers and their impact on the marine and coastal environments raised public and politic concerns on the safety and environmental impact of modern container ships. Authorities and industry are urged to evaluate container securing and improve regulations and practices to avoid such loss of containers at sea. An important cause of container loss are off-design conditions, such as parametric rolling. To help mitigate this problem, this research paper focusses on the following question: How can we support the bridge crew in understanding and recognising off-design conditions and which support can be given in taking effective corrective decisions? The basis for this research is a widespread questionnaire among seafarers, simulator evaluation and prototype decision support system design.

Human Performance as part of a risk management model

Martijn Schipper, MARIN

In this world, major transportation of cargo is done by ships, both across the globe and more locally via inland waterways. These ships vary in size and type, dependent on type of cargo (e.g. oil, containers, grain, passengers), areas of operation and amount of cargo to be transported. With ships getting larger and larger in the past century, and more and more ships are operated all over the globe, the complexity of the maritime operation has been increased. In this highly complex maritime operational environment there is a growing need to (1) oversee the level of shipping safety at sea, (2) Take effective and efficient measures to keep shipping safety at sea at an acceptable level and (3) be transparent to the public about the level of safety, future developments that affect this level and about the perceived effectiveness and efficiency of measures that are or will be implemented. In this study we defined the level of shipping safety as an accumulation of risks, whereby risks are being strongly related to the human operator’s ability to perform his or her tasks on board ships and in operational centers and remote control centers ashore. We have used Mica Endsley’s framework of Situation Awareness, Decision Making and Action Planning and the known threats to these constructs, to identify risks. In this way we were, up to a certain level, able to distinguish between risks that can effectively and efficiently be mitigated through measures taken by the authorities and those risks that cannot.

From Research to Design: Applying Human-Centered Design in a Future Ship Bridge Design Case Study

Yemao Man, ABB

Human-centered design (HCD) is crucial in the development of human-system interaction across various industries, focusing on the early integration of end-users' needs throughout an iterative design process. However, the application of HCD throughout the entire life cycle in the maritime domain remains rare and underexploited, particularly for envisioning and developing future systems (e.g. digitalisation, automation functions, work environment). Previous research within the maritime human factors domain has highlighted significant gaps in applying HCD principles, pointing out the challenges of integrating new technologies without fully considering the end-users' needs. Such issues may lead to operational inefficiencies and an increased risk for operator error, suggesting there are lost opportunities for successful innovative designs.

This paper investigates how HCD practices can influence the development of future maritime systems to fulfil mariners’ evolving needs amidst technological advances using a bridge design case. It employs the conceptualization of a future ship bridge design as a practical applied context to explore and demonstrate the applicability and value of HCD principles in creating a futuristic maritime work environment. Utilizing qualitative data collected through contextual inquiry to understand the end-users’ needs and the operational context, alongside iterative design and evaluation phases, this work has developed innovative solutions that define the next generation of maritime operational environment and actionable design insights for technology manufacturers and ship builders. The derived insights highlight the critical role of understanding user-system interactions, physical ergonomics, and technology integration. These factors are essential in enhancing the functionality, safety, and user satisfaction of future maritime systems, contributing meaningfully to the discourse on HCD application in complex system design.

Opportunities for Advanced Man-Machine Teaming on Ships Through Holonic Human Cyber-Physical Systems

Nicole Taylor, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Teamwork among humans on a ship is essential for performing many tasks aboard. Working towards the successful completion of vessel operations regularly requires humans to interact with interfaces to digital systems and machines, forming man-machine teams. This article explores the potential opportunities for advanced man-machine teaming on ships that can be unlocked through the development of holonic human cyber-physical systems. Human cyber-physical systems are state-of-the-art information and communications technology wherein physical assets and humans are equipped with digital counterparts. A holonic systems approach is used whereby autonomous, cooperative elements, called holons, are created to represent entities that are in the real world, including humans. An illustrative example is presented to exemplify an implementation of a holonic human cyber-physical system towards creating a decision support system with human condition monitoring.

Towards autonomous ships: Developing a Good Seamanship Model

Author: Shunqiang Xu, University of Twente
Co-author: Ville V. Lehtola, Simone Borsci, and Stephanie M. Van den Berg, University of Twente

The development of Good Seamanship Model (GSM) could help the Maritime Autonomous Surfaces Ships (MASSs) to flexibly follow or deviate from traffic rules and autonomously avoid potential collisions at sea. Human navigators, based on expertise, experience and perception of the context can make informed decision to prevent collisions. Large set of data regarding movements of ships inherently contains patterns of such (human) decisions, reflecting both traffic regulations and good seamanship practices. This talk will present the ongoing research we are carrying out at the University of Twente regarding the possibility to utilize effectively available data on ships movements to build a GSM for collision avoidance of autonomous ships.

We will discuss and seek potential answers for the following two questions: i) What constitutes “good seamanship”? ii) How we can extract good seamanship behaviour from real-word data?

Moreover, we will discuss the future steps of this research (e.g., how can GSM be developed to handle various encounter situations etc.) and the most important steps to be taken in order to develop MASSs.

Development of procedures for operational safety utilising advanced simulation

Keith Hutchinson, Safinah Ltd and Mel Irving, South Shields Marine School, Tyne Coast College

It is imperative that ports and the ships that use them are not only compatible and optimised for both efficiency and flexibility, but their operations are developed in an exhaustive manner hence resulting in robust and safe procedures. This paper will discuss how advanced ‘real time’ marine simulation has been effectively deployed and successfully applied as an integral element of operational analysis and understanding of the performance of ships in port facilities hence greatly enhances the robust identification of optimal operational solutions and enhances the production of inherently safe operational procedures.

The application of advanced marine simulation in the operation of ships in ports will be discussed in this paper through the presentation and description of a number of ‘real life’ examples which illustrate the successful utilisation of real time simulation in aiding the development of safe and operable procedures. These simulations have been undertaken at the ‘state of the art’ Kongsberg K-Sim simulator suite at South Shields Marine School (SSMS), located on Tyneside on the northeast coast of England. The school is one of the world’s oldest purpose-built maritime training centres, founded in 1861, and has constantly been at the forefront of the education of mariners from all around the world. SSMS is one of the global leaders in the development and use of marine simulation techniques not only for the training of deck and engineering officers but, because of their capabilities in ship and geographical area database design, modelling, and assessment, also for research, accident investigation and design evaluations. In recognition of its expertise, the SSMS was awarded the prestigious Queen’s Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education in 2019.

The ‘state of the art’ suite of simulators at SSMS are all capable of being interconnected therefore facilitating fully realistic and expansive simulations to be undertaken considering all aspects of operational performance. This ‘world-class’ simulation suite include: two DNV Class A full mission 360 degrees bridge simulators, four slightly smaller full mission 130 degree bridge simulators, and 16 secondary desktop bridge simulators; a two-storey full mission engine room simulator which is capable of being separated into two fully functioning full mission simulators hence facilitating the undertaking of very expansive simulations to be undertaken on a combination of slow speed, medium speed, dual fuel and diesel electric propulsion trains; a diesel electric workstation; and also a full VTS (Vessel Traffic Service) suite. Therefore, initially, in order to set the scene, the capabilities of the Marine Simulation Unit of SSMS will be described to give an appreciation of the comprehensive and accurate simulations that can and have been performed to develop operational procedures to maximise safety whilst also enhancing operability, flexibility, and efficiency.

What do we dislike about humans
Stephan Procee, NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences

Based on collecting the contemporary OOW’s tasks it is argumented that there are many more decision making processes going on in the OOW’s mind than just these associated with Collision and Grounding avoidance. The latter two are, however, most important. Although collision regulations are in force their interpretation and application appear not to be uniform. An analysis of traffic near West Hinder shows that reaction time and course change varies widely per situation and is not likely depending on anything but speed of the give way vessel.
This slightly chaotic behavior might justify an alternative presentation of problem space and solution space which supports the decision making process.