Autonomous Ships 2024

Autonomous Ships and Functional Human Presence: ‘Ad’ the IMO MASS Code ‘per’ UNCLOS.

Alexandros Ntovas,  University of Southampton

Ongoing regulatory developments by the International Maritime Organization in the context of adopting safety rules (standards, regulations, procedures and practices) that can be generally and internationally accepted, have already reached an advanced stage toward the development of a goal-based standards (GBS) instrument for regulating the operation of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS). Following the recent decisions in Legal Committee (111th session, 22-26 April 2024) and Maritime Safety Committee (108th session, 15-24 May 2024) to revise the MASS Road Map the aim is to offer the MASS Code on a voluntary basis in 2025, with its final version to be adopted as a mandatory instrument by 2030 with proposed entry into force on 1 January 2032. While the MASS Code shall be expected to address sufficiently the required changes in terms of making and applying future legislation that should not be inconsistent with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS), the ostensibly simple question is whether autonomous (a concept that is yet to be conclusively defined) ships will meet the legal requirement of ‘hu-manning’, a term that I propose to be used for combining in this context the existing manning requirement accruing from UNCLOS within the immediate prospect of technological advancements rendering the ship – ie., as a system combining processes and equipment – to perform data acquisition, analysis, decision making and action implementation, etc., without human assistance; but not precluding in the future and under certain conditions, all these to become also independent of human control. In answering this question, I propose that the law will in addition to the first two turns, namely first in approaching the law-making process by means of flexible code(s) and second in moving the substantive application of the law away from prescriptive rules to goal-based rules, will need to take a third turn by interpreting the UNCLOS requirement of human presence in terms of a functional approach.

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Start with the Why – the Value of MARS Competence Center.

Signe Jensen, SIMAC

Following the introduction of new technology, the legal dilemma arises regarding whether it can be contained by existing regulations or if new legal instruments are necessary. At the international level, a regulatory scoping exercise (RSE) was conducted to assess existing IMO instruments to see how they might apply to ships that utilize varying degrees of automation. Based on the RSE, the development of a non-mandatory Code to cover regulatory gaps has been initiated.

However, a question remains unanswered: how do states regulate new technology that, to some

extent, has not been developed yet? New technology is often developed and tested by an industry that carefully guards its knowledge, as this knowledge represents a competitive advantage.

Regulation is expected to enable innovation while simultaneously protecting society. Data gaps and lack of information can be barriers to regulation. When data and information are owned by the industry, and not shared, there is a risk that regulation becomes a limitation to innovation or a danger to society.

The quality of risk-based regulation depends on knowledge at the legislative level; thus, it becomes dependent on cooperation between the industry and the state. However, if the knowledge is retained by the private entity, the role of the state becomes merely to legitimize the industry. The role of a public competence centre, such as MARS, would be competence-building, and facilitation of regulatory knowledge. The centre will not be able to give all the answers, but it will provide regulators with necessary knowledge to ask the right questions.

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How UR E26 & E27 could and should apply to drones and autonomous vessels?

Charlotte Soyer, Bureau Veritas Maritime & Offshore

In a noteworthy move towards the enhancement of cyber resilience for the Maritime industry, new regulations have been introduced by the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). UR E26 is mandated for all ships contracted after 1st of July 2024 and UR E27 for systems to be integrated in their resilient architecture design. Even though they are addressing vessels and systems, these two unified requirements might not be considered for drones and autonomous ships, as these remain outside the scope of applicability.

However, as the Maritime industry embraces the era of unmanned operation across the globe, the imperative for robust cybersecurity measures becomes paramount to ensure the safety, reliability, and integrity of operations.

That is why this presentation will explore the valid reasons for applying UR E26 and UR E27 standards to drones and autonomous ships. We will dig into existing vulnerabilities and emphasize the need for a standardized and interoperable cybersecurity framework.  While acknowledging the limits of these regulations, it will address potential challenges and gaps, offering recommendations for mitigation.

Additionally, alternative cyber maritime regulations may be considered to supplement and enhance the overall cybersecurity strategy. In summary, by addressing cybersecurity challenges, fostering collaboration, and considering additional regulatory frameworks, the Maritime industry can continue to evolve safely towards hyperconnectivity.

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“MASS – Design for inspection”

Chris Balls, Cayman Registry

As the concept of autonomous vessels advances to larger vessels and more widespread international voyages, so the appropriate mechanisms for oversight such as Port State Control (PSC) will need to evolve. It is important that MASS design takes the facilitation of effective and efficient inspection into consideration.

This paper will outline some of the discussions that have taken place at Caribbean Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control (CMoU) Technical Standards Working Group with respect to port state inspection of autonomous vessels, and will include details of development of guidance for PSC Officers, such as a draft aide memoire.

The paper will also outline CMoU preparations for PSC activities for visiting autonomous vessels and depending upon the timing of first such inspection in Cayman Islands may include a description on this and the lessons learnt.

The paper will outline some of the issues faced for conducting efficient inspections such as communication, cyber and physical security, vessel access, inspector safety and some remote control center aspects where applicable.

Some of the challenges faced by not having international regulations to work with will be discussed.

Although this paper will concentrate on PSC aspect many of the issues will be common with flag state and recognized organization inspection, as well as such bodies as Customs, Immigration and health authorities all of whom may feel the necessity to access MASS to a greater or lesser extent.

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The professional profile of the remote operator

Clemens Plawenn-Salvini, University of Applied Sciences Emden/Leer

The strive for innovation is apparent when discussing autonomous shipping. A significant aspect thereof is the social and professional impact on mariners. A major argument towards autonomous shipping is the increase in safety. However, with the current approach there will be a human who is the last resort, thus competences of the remote operators have to reflect this responsibility. The maritime sector needs to prepare accordingly and ensure the implementation of an additional marine education program – both exclusively and inclusively to the traditional marine training program. Such a program can however only be developed, with a clear picture of the required professional profile.

It is unlikely that a remote operator’s job is exclusively navigating the vessels, just like a nautical officer onboard is not only trained to steer the ship. The new challenges of autonomous shipping require an adaptation of competences to maintain the safety of operations both on board and on land. Therefore, at the University of Applied Sciences Emden/Leer we are conducting a study with companies already engaged, on the verge of engaging, or interested in engaging in autonomous shipping. The aim is to create a holistic picture of the interdisciplinary requirement to the professional profile of the remote operator.

Different approaches to identifying the required professional profile of the remote operator will be discussed in this paper. The focus will be on the curriculum for the education and required experience needed for new students entering a maritime school to prepare for a career as remote operators.

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Safety Assurance of Autonomous Surface Vessels

Eshan Rajabally, BMT

Safety assurance in the case of autonomous sea going vessels is nontrivial due to the pace of change in enabling technologies and their disruptive impact. Leaning on proven practice, management of safety risk to a tolerable level and subsequent demonstration of a safety case remain pivotal to safety assurance of maritime autonomy. The long-established discipline of functional safety engineering concerns mitigating the risks of system or component failures that would otherwise cause harm and numerous supporting analysis techniques abound. However, in the case of autonomous systems, risk assessment must address far more software failures, for which failure rates are much harder to quantify than the equivalent for hardware. Despite this, recent detailed thinking on safety practice tuned to maritime autonomy has emerged under the auspices of European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) and the EU H2020 funded “AUTOSHIP”. Good practice may also potentially be read across from safety thinking generic to autonomous systems or from analogous domains such as self-driving road vehicles, for example, mitigating for functional insufficiencies or foreseeable misuse and so called “Safety Of The Intended Functionality” (SOTIF). The authors examine safety risk management in the context of maritime autonomy.

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Environmental potential of remote control technologies - Use Case Maritime Pilotage

Hans-Christoph Burmeister, Fraunhofer CML

Remote-control technologies for maritime applications are emerging and its capabilities have been demonstrated in several demonstration projects for deep-sea and specifically harbor tug operations. Despite the ongoing international efforts on MASS regulation, regulatory uncertainties still remain a hurdle for these technologies in the near future. Besides remote control, remote support in terms of shore-based pilotage can provide a quicker way to exploit benefits of these technologies’ advancements in the near future. If virtual boarding of the vessel is possible – at least in certain cases – the need for pilotage transfer by vessel or even helicopter becomes obsolete.

This paper will briefly introduce relevant MASS technologies for enabling remote pilotage services, before assessing its environmental reduction potential by deriving the annual profile of pilot boat missions within Europe based on one year of AIS-data. Hereby, the speed profile will be coupled with velocity-based fuel oil consumption estimates to derive a realistic estimate for the potential savings per coastal state. These results are finally discussed with several operational boundary conditions for remote pilotage services, also considering safety and demographic effects of pilotage work.

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Low-Latency Video Communication at 5G NTN for Ship Remote Control

Ikuo Tsukagoshi, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai

In recent years, Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites have started their commercial services, and there have been improvements in communication bandwidth, latency compared to the conventional ones using geostationary (GEO) satellites. Terrestrial mobile 5G significantly improves network performance to the conventional LTE, which is now going to extend to the sea, backcountry, and space, called Non Terrestrial Network (NTN).

To remotely control MASS from ROC, it is important to achieve adequate data delivery performance, along with the network capability guaranteed according to the connectivity underway. We consider the potential requirement for video data transmission so that the ROC operator can recognize the ship's status by visual means. G2G latency throughout the video path is primarily caused by video codec and transport.

In this paper, we propose a video/audio transmission architecture that takes into account high efficiency, low latency, and reliability, also conduct simple latency simulation with NTN, and discuss issues for future transmission schemes.

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An Investigation into the Effects of Training on the Fault Diagnostic Skills of Navigational Seafarers

Jevon Chan, Newcastle University

As the maritime industry progresses towards a digitised era of shipping, the criticality of the success for autonomous navigational systems lies in the relationship between human operator and system. Therefore, it is vital for the maritime industry to understand whether current training standards are suitable for autonomous navigation or if training regimes should be altered to allow for the evolution and optimisation of the officer of the watch role in the age of autonomous ships. As such, this paper introduces a study conducted in a navigational bridge watchkeeping simulator and investigates the impact of training styles on the fault diagnostic skills of navigational crew members, when the individual is presented with an automated fault. For the study, participants were shown one of two training videos prior to the beginning of the bridge watchkeeping simulator exercise. The training video was either focused the technical or the behavioural skills of seafaring. The results of the study are analysed using an Event Tree Analysis method to assess the various performances of the participants and their diagnosis of the fault introduced. The findings of the study suggested that participants receiving the behavioural training video were more successful in diagnosing the fault in the exercise. Moreover, understanding the data gathered from the study could result in the development of future training regimes for navigational officers of the watch and offer a solution to optimise the evolution of the seafaring role.

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Unlocking key acceptance criteria for safe situational awareness systems using ship maneuverability

Kristian Karolius, DNV

Adequate awareness of the surrounding navigational environment is a prerequisite for operators to navigate their ship safely and efficiently in accordance with their voyage plan. As the maritime industry transitions towards increased autonomous and unmanned operations, the need for safe automated awareness systems becomes essential. One safety challenge is to identify suitable performance criteria for timely and accurate estimates of the navigation environment. Acceptable performance should enable the collision avoidance system to identify and implement timely, safe and efficient avoidance maneuvers, making the latter a governing factor for required performance for the awareness system. The IMO’s Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG), set requirements to whom, how and when to correctly implement collision avoidance maneuvers. However, the requirements to when maneuvers should be implemented is given by qualitative terms like: “in ample time” and “apparent maneuver” which are highly ambiguous, open for interpretation and difficult to quantify for a system. Another, more quantitative factor governing acceptable performance is the ships' maneuverability characteristics. Any vessel at any speed will have a point-of-no-return for which the rudder and/or machinery command   must be implemented to avoid collision with an obstacle in the waterway, i.e. last resort maneuver. Before reaching the  point-of-no-return, adequate awareness is crucial, but also time available for collision risk assessment and final decision-making. This paper aims to leverage ship maneuvering capabilities as a foundation to identify performance criteria for awareness systems used in ship navigation.

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Business Ecosystems in Autonomous Shipping: A literature review and actor mapping

Kristoffer Kloch, DFDS & Aalborg University

The pursuit of sustainable maritime transport is recognized as pivotal for global development, fostering economic growth and social equity [1]. The European Union (EU) has endeavoured to align with this vision, aiming to shift freight transport from road to water to promote sustainable growth [2][3]. Despite the environmental and societal advantages of maritime transport over road transport [4], waterborne freight has faced challenges, losing market share in European transportation consistently over the past decade [5]. The prevailing "economy-of-scale" paradigm that emphasizes using larger vessels now strains existing infrastructure and hampers supply chain resilience [6]. Research suggests that smaller, autonomous ships may offer cost savings and environmental benefits to an extent that could disrupt the current paradigm [8][9]. However, comprehensive review of the business models governing such ships within their broader business ecosystem is still at its infancy. Employing a systematic literature review inspired by Ziajka-Poznanska & Montewka [9], this study presents the state-of-the-art, gaps and insufficiencies of research on business models and ecosystems of autonomous shipping. Results reveal a nascent area of study, with limited bridging between the research areas of business ecosystems and autonomous ships. Moreover, existing studies lack sufficiently detailed commercial and operational models across broader, industrially accurate networks. Consequently, this paper proposes avenues for future research, emphasizing the need to explore the role of business ecosystems in understanding the business models of small, autonomous ships, how they create and distribute value within broader commercial and operational contexts, while also offering new business opportunities.

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“MUM – Large Modifiable Underwater Mothership”

Philipp Schön, thyssenkrupp Marine Systems GmbH

The joint research project “MUM – Large Modifiable Underwater Mothership” develops a family of highly modular, uncrewed underwater vehicles. The MUM system allows a mission-dependent module assembly to fulfill a wide spectrum of underwater tasks. A full-scale demonstrator of approx. 25 m length is being produced.

The paper presents the project’s goals and selected results of the extra-large uncrewed underwater vehicle’s (XLUUV) development. It presents challenges the team faced and highlights the differences between designing one-of-a-kind surface vessels and an adaptable XLUUV concerning autonomy and regulatory aspects. As an XLUUV, the MUM must not only field highly automated surface navigation but also underwater navigation. The paper provides insight into how hazard and risk assessments guided the engineering and how early regulatory stakeholder engagement is one of the project’s success factors. The paper concludes with an outlook to the verification and validation phase of demonstrator.

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Navigating the Cyber Seas: Fortifying Maritime Navigation Systems against Digital Storms

Roberto Galeazzi, Technical University of Denmark

Safe maritime navigation fundamentally depends on the navigator's situational awareness, an essential cognitive state for comprehending the marine environment and making informed decisions. Advancements in sensor technology and artificial intelligence have birthed sophisticated multi-sensor perception systems, poised to revolutionize maritime transport. Yet, the increasing technological integration of ships broadens the attack surface for cyber threats, which can undermine navigation aids. Cyber-attacks such as GNSS spoofing, radar jamming, and AIS interference exemplify these risks. While cybersecurity technologies offer crucial initial protection, they might not be entirely sufficient. To bolster the navigation system's cyber resilience, it's imperative to implement a dual-layer defense strategy. This approach integrates both traditional and cutting-edge sensor technologies to facilitate comprehensive integrity monitoring of vital navigation and informational systems like GNSS and RADAR. Our research introduces a cyber resilience assessment framework for commercial vessel navigation systems. Through two illustrative case studies, we elucidate how the synergy of multi-modal sensor fusion, machine learning, and statistical learning can forge robust integrity monitoring solutions, ensuring the cyber resilience of maritime navigation systems.

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Exploring The Feasibility of Autonomous Ferries for Urban Mobility

Andjela Orlovic, VesOPS

Introduction: As cities grapple with congestion, pollution, and the need for sustainable transport solutions, innovative projects emerge to address these challenges. This paper presents a case study of an autonomous passenger and bicycle ferry connecting Vindeby to Svendborg, Denmark. The project investigates the feasibility and viability of such a service using commercially available technology.

Project Description: The proposed ferry utilizes state-of-the-art autonomous systems and electric propulsion. As an urban shortcut, the service will be attractive for daily commuting but also offer a novel and scenic experience to tourists.

Focus Areas:

1.New Transport Concepts: The project explores novel transport paradigms, shifting from traditional crewed vessels to unmanned operation. It challenges existing norms and paves the way for future waterborne mobility innovations.

2.Urban Mobility: The Vindeby-Svendborg route serves as a microcosm of urban mobility challenges. By providing a reliable, efficient, and eco-friendly transport option, the ferry contributes to reducing road traffic and enhancing overall mobility.

3.Rural Connectivity: Proven reliable and feasible autonomous passenger ferries have the potential to revitalize islands and rural coastal areas where transport options are often limited. Affordable and frequent ferry service would greatly benefit the local communities and attract both new residents and tourists.

Conclusion: As autonomous waterborne transportation becomes commercially viable, projects like the Vindeby-Svendborg ferry demonstrate the transformative potential of smart and sustainable mobility solutions. By integrating technology, environmental consciousness, and user convenience, we can shape a future where urban waterways play a vital role in our daily lives.

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Autonomous SWATH Vessels for Wind Farm Inspections: A Comparative Study on Operational Efficiency

Suleyman Aykut Korkmaz, University of Southampton

In addressing environmental challenges, the maritime sector is advancing towards sustainable innovations, particularly autonomous vessels for wind farm inspections. This research examines the use of autonomous Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) vessels with a hybrid propulsion system combining Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and batteries, powered by liquified hydrogen. This system is ideal for unmanned operations, offering high reliability, low maintenance, and remote monitoring capabilities, essential for autonomous navigation. Utilizing liquefied hydrogen significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions and enhances operational efficiency by reducing refuelling needs when compared to traditional vessels. A key focus is on deploying Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) for inspections, highlighting the operational and environmental advantages of SWATH vessels over traditional crewed monohulls. SWATH vessels excel in ROV deployment ease, operational availability, and lower costs, marking a significant departure from the high CO2 emissions associated with diesel-powered monohulls. Through numerical analysis and towing tank experiments, the study evaluates the seakeeping and power requirements of SWATH vessels. A case study on an Aberdeen-offshore wind farm route demonstrates their enhanced operational availability and reduced CO2 emissions in the North Sea's challenging conditions. These findings support the feasibility of liquefied hydrogen propulsion for maritime transport, advocating for a shift towards renewable energy-driven, autonomous maritime technologies for efficient and regular wind farm inspections.

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Concept design on a Large Unmanned Surface Vehicle (LUSV)

Simone Mancini, Department of Industrial Engineering – University of Naples Federico II, IT

The present study discusses the concept design of a Large Unmanned Surface Ship (LUSV) with an overall length of seventy meters and a maximum speed of approximately 20 knots, with a similar CONOPS as a light patrol vessel. The ship is intended to be operated without seafarers on board and to be remotely controlled by a land-based controller room, with a certain level of autonomy (i.e. a degree of autonomy between three or four, according to the IMO MASS Code). The study starts with the definition of the general arrangement, taking into consideration the absence of the crew. Therefore, spaces such as mess halls, kitchens, and accommodations are no longer necessary. However, additional spaces are required to fulfil functions previously carried out by crew members. To ensure an equivalent level of safety to a manned vehicle, redundant systems and sub-divisions of vital systems and spaces are included in the design. Additionally, improved fault diagnosis devices, enhanced processes for data collection and transmission, and automation of the ship's apparatus are also incorporated. Furthermore, the concept design addresses technical aspects such as manoeuvring and seakeeping capabilities, structural scantling, and stability to complete the concept design of the Large Unmanned Surface Ship, identifying the pros and cons of the proposed solutions compared to a traditional patrol vessel solution.

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Classification and Definitions of Unmanned Maritime Systems

Marina Lesse, Naval Postgraduate School, Energy Academic Group

As unmanned systems (UxS) permeate the maritime environment, it has become increasingly evident that existing policy lags far behind technological advances. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provisions have an underlying assumption that “ships” and “vessels” (terms used interchangeably in the agreement) must be “manned.” Because UNCLOS fails to explicitly define either of these terms, it is unclear whether the provisions apply to unmanned maritime systems. Lacking an established and agreed upon international classification of UxS, the precedents that nations set through their own domestic policies and treatment of UxS become increasingly important in determining treatment of these systems in the maritime environment.  Whether UxS are considered ships or vessels, or are in a separate category, dictates whether UxS are required to follow certain laws and receive specific protections. The development of technology, its productive use, and the safety of the maritime environment depend on the existence and implementation of clear laws and policies.

This report aims to explore the following:

1) Current international definitions of vessels and ships;

2) Whether UxS fall within these definitions;

3) Current international and FVEY classifications of UxS, or lack thereof; and

4) The implications of these classifications (or lack thereof).

Recent seizures of U.S. UxS by Iran and China deem the classification of these systems as relevant and time sensitive.  The findings of this report elucidate the terminology used and precedents set by countries to clarify the legal environment and how UxS will be treated under international law.

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Utilizing Onboard Data to Enable Remote Piloting

Thomas Petersen, Danelec

Danelec and the leading Danish pilotage company DanPilot have developed an innovative solution through a strategic partnership with the potential to revolutionize maritime pilotage.
This new technology integrates operational and navigational solutions, enabling safe pilotage without requiring a pilot to board the ship. Christian Kock, EVP Safety at Danelec, unveils the new service.

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Human-centred autonomous shipping

Asger Christian Schliemann Haug, Lloyd's Register

A human-centric approach to autonomous shipping is pivotal to ensuring safe and efficient operations. According to the latest research by Lloyd’s Register (LR) in partnership with Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL) on ”Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS): creating a framework for efficiency, safety and compliance”, placing the human at the centre of autonomy ensures that the evolution of autonomous systems in maritime will enhance, rather than replace, the critical analysis and decision-making roles of human operators.

Particularly within Remote Operations Centres (ROCs), a human-centered design should enhance situational awareness and decision-making capabilities. Advanced AI-driven tools should be used to augment the operators' abilities without diminishing the critical role of human judgment, especially in complex or emergency scenarios. The effectiveness of these systems can be ensured by regulatory sandboxes that test the technologies in real-world settings, thereby guaranteeing safety, compliance, and fostering innovation.

More specifically in the case of situational awareness, LR’s recent research on alarm management underlines the importance of human factors. There has been a significant increase in alarm notifications over the past two decades, leading to alarm flooding and operator fatigue, which compromise safety. Effective alarm management strategies should focus on rationalising alarms by incorporating principles from human factors and ergonomics to enhance timely and accurate crew responses without causing undue stress. This paper will concentrate on how technological advancements in autonomous shipping should be harmonised with human intelligence and behaviours.

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A Framework for Risk-Aware Trajectory Planning for Autonomous Vessel in Congested Waterways

Yaqub Prabowo, Technical University of Denmark

Autonomous vessel navigation plays an important role in improving maritime safety and operational efficiency, particularly in congested and complex waterways.. COLREGs Rules 13-15, which govern only two-vessel encounters—such as overtaking, head-on, and crossing situations—may be insufficient in more complex conditions, requiring navigators to rely on "good seamanship" (Rule 2) to mitigate risks. However, quantifying good seamanship poses a challenge. To address this, metrics have been developed to assess collision risk in multi-vessel encounters and grounding risk near land or shallow waters. The spatiotemporal aspects of violations are used to quantify risk, incorporating vessel states, sea-chart geometries, vessel domain, and time to the violation. Using these quantified measures, a risk-aware trajectory planning algorithm was developed, applying sampling-based methods to generate safe and efficient paths, which were tested across various scenarios. Future work will incorporate environmental phenomena like wind and waves and consider target vessels' future actions. Further exploration of advanced machine learning techniques is planned to enhance risk quantification and trajectory planning in complex scenarios based on AIS datasets.